If the universe is everything, and scientists say that the universe is expanding, what is it expanding into? If you try to answer this question, you may just drive yourself insane. Philosophy, of course, can be rather like that. The search for meaning and logic in this world of hours can often seem fruitless. In this entry I have not tried to categorically answer the questions. I have tried to put forward my own thoughts on them as well as, hopefully, giving a more objective look at some of the questions. Whether you agree with my analysis or not, I hope that this sparks your imagination in some way.
Why is there something rather than nothing?
The question of how and why the universe came to be is one that has caused even the brightest might to pause. I don’t think that anyone can definitively answered this question without calling it a fluke or accident. This, of course, assumes you believe in a scientific rather than religious explanation for the existence of everything in the universe and the the universe itself. There is a strong push for the theory that the universe arose spontaneously, through self-organizing evolution. There is, however, no specific evidence of what set this process in motion, though the idea of a quantum fluctation in the vacuum of space has been put forward.
So, why is there something rather than nothing? Well, it’d be pretty boring without anything, wouldn’t it?
Why is the world the way it is?
The process by which the world came into existence and turned out the way it did is as complex a method as anything known to man. Why our planet is able to sustain life as we know it is mainly down to it’s distance from the sun, it’s gravitational force and it’s relative safety from the bombardment of asteroids. Once the building blocks of life are established then it is down to natural selection to drive evolution, leading to the multitude of plants and animals currently inhabiting the world. Georgraphically, the planet has been shaped by many violent forces, from plate techtonics to storm activity and meteor strikes. It has created a world of deep ocean trenches, mountains that reach far beyond the clouds, vast deserts and dense jungles. These differing natural habitats have lead evolution on a merry dance down many divergent and convergent paths creating a miriad of living things, more than one person could ever imagine in a lifetime.
From a more human perspective, the world is the way it is because of the effect that humans have on each other. Different emotions lead to different reactions in different people depending of their predisposition to react in a certain manner. Some people may be more likely to react with violence to certain situations, or may percieve prejudice where there is none. They may become more determined when faced with adversity or loathe the idea of inequality and strive to remedy this. Greed is a key determining factor in why the world is the way it is: the desire for more land, more money, more power and more influence all come under this banner.
There are many major factors in the determination of why the human world is the way it is which are created by humans themseleves as a result of these reactions. These include war, scientific breakthroughs and technology. Politics and trade create both harmony and tension between different peoples around the world.
Where do we come from?
Depending on who you ask, humans were either created by God/s or evolved as part of the natural selection process. Scientifically, humankind has undergone many transformations in its history. If we look at the major milestones which led to modern humans from an evolutionary point of view we are confronted with the following:
Order: Primates: Primates: 75 million years ago
Superfamily: Hominoidea: Apes: 28 million years ago
Family: Hominidea: Great Apes: 15 million years ago
Orangutans – separate out here
Subfamily: Homininea: 8 million years ago
Gorillas – separate out here
Tribe: Hominini: 5.8 million years ago
Chimpanzees – separate out here
Bonobos – separate out here
Subtribe: Hominina: Bipedal Apes: 3 million years ago
Sahelanthropus tchadensis 7 million – 6 million years ago
Orrorin tugenensis 6 million years ago
Ardipithecus ramidus 5.8 million – 4.4 million years ago
Ardipithecus kadabba 5.8 million – 5.2 million years ago
Australopithecus anamensis 4.2 million – 3.9 million years ago
Australopithecus afarensis 3.9 million – 2.9 million years ago
Kenyanthropus platyops 3.5 million – 3.3 million years ago
Australopithecus africanus 3 million – 2 million years ago
Australopithecus aethiopicus 2.6 million – 2.3 million years ago
Australopithecus garhi 2.5 million years ago
Australopithecus boisei 2.1 million – 1.1 million years ago
Australopithecus robustus 2 million – 1.5 million years ago
Australopithecus sediba 1.95 million – 1.8 million years ago
Genus: Homo: 2.5 million years ago
Homo habilis 2.4 million – 1.5 million years ago
Homo gautengensis 2 million – 600,000 years ago
Homo erectus 1.8 million – 300,000 years ago
Homo ergaster 1.8 million – 300,000 years ago
Homo georgicus 1.8 million years ago
Homo floresiensis 1.1 million – 17,000 years ago
Homo antecessor 780,000 years ago
Homo heidelbergensis 500,000 years ago
Homo neanderthalensis 230,000 – 30,000 years ago
Species: Homo Sapiens: Humans: 0.5 million years ago
Subspecies: Homo Sapiens Sapiens: Modern Humans: 0.2 million years ago
When you think about the idea that modern humans co-existed with other humanoid species for thousands of years, and possibly interacted with them, and the fact that so many different species of hominids have been discovered, it is amazing that only we survived the evolutionary process.
There are too many religious explanations for where we come from to do them all justice, so I will stick to the one I am most familiar with – Christianity. The bible states that man was created out of the dust. This implies that man’s physical body is irrelevant and that it is the breath of life, given by God, that is important. This breath of life, relates to the spirit or soul. To say that man was created in the image of God is to say that God gave Man the same attributes as he himself possessed, such as intelligence, will and emotion.
Some religious scholars believe that the book of Genesis, in describing mankind as being descended from a single individual, teaches certain lessons, rather than being a literal translation on actual events: taking one life is equivalent to destroying the entire world, and saving one life is equivalent to saving the entire world; a person should not say to anyone that he comes from better stock because we all came from the same ancestor; and to teach the greatness of God, for when human beings create a mold every thing that comes out of that mold is identical, while mankind, which comes out of a single mold, is different in that every person is unique.
There are also Evolutionary-Creationists who believe that God created the matter in the universe and the building blocks for life but left the rest up to the evolutionary process. They see the story of Adam and Eve as a cautionary tale outlining the results of going against the wishes of God.
As far as translating this religious hypothesis into scientific language, I believe that God is synonymous for the universe. The creation of man from the earth is analogous with the evolution of man from primodial soup to intelligent creature and that the breath of life represents the critical step from mere primate to human.
Who are we?
There are many traits that make us human, such as self-awareness and free moral agency, speech and symbolic cognition, our nimble thumbs, conscience and the capacity to imagine. They distinguish us from other species, especially those closest to us genetically (chimps and other hominid species), but it merely tells us what we are and not who we are. Who we are comes from the manifestations of these qualities.
More than any quality that defines us as human, it is our social and emotional contributions which define who we are: our ability to love, to have faith in things which cannot be proven and to learn about things not in our immediate sphere of influence; our ability to sympathise and empathise, to show compassion, tolerance and acceptance of difference; and our ability grow and change as individuals.
Where are we going?
The development of the human mind has been incredibly rapid evolutionarily speaking. If we continue to increase our brain power there is no knowing where we will end up. There is wonderful optimism inherent in the thought of what human nature will be like in the coming milleniums. There is, however, a dark pessimism which pervades also. This has to do with the struggle of good and evil within the individual and society as a whole. Will the advent of new technologies be used for the betterment of mankind or be its downfall? There is a trend for scientific discoveries to be co-opted by the mechanisms of war and there is a fear that any future developments, no matter how benign they appear to be will be corrupted by the war machine to the detriment of humankind.
Of course, humanity has the power to create it’s own future, it’s one of the features that makes humans human. What we dream we can create and do. As individuals we all dream of something better and if we can harness that power of positivity as a society then there are no bounds to the amazing things that we can achieve.
Is there a God?
Well, that depends on who you ask. I don’t know if there is a God. I do not have an underlying faith in any particular God. I reject the Christian idea of an omnipotent God and do not believe in the literalness of the Bible. This type of belief in a God or Gods signifies a method for explaining that which cannot be explained scientifically. If there is a God, I believe that it is within each individual, like a moral compass, that guides our actions but does not pre-determine them.
Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it. Do not believe in anything simply because it is spoken and rumored by many. Do not believe in anything simply because it is found written in your religious books. Do not believe in anything merely on the authority of your teachers and elders. Do not believe in traditions simply because they have been handed down for many generations. But after observation and analysis, when you find that anything agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live up to it. Siddhãrtha Gautama (Buddha)
Christianity believes in a single God who is all powerful. The first commandment is “thou shalt have no other God before me”. This leads one to the question of whether Christianity allows for the presence of other dieties but thinks that theirs is better and should be followed above all others, or whther it merely suggests that other deities are artificial and should be abandoned in preference for the one true God. Islam also has in a single God who has 99 names. God, the creator, is just, omnipotent and merciful. "Allah" is the Arabic word for “one true God”. There is a lot of cross over between Christianity and Islam, however, the deification of Jesus by some denominations of Christianity is seen as blasphemous by Muslims as they believe it shows polytheism which goes against their idea of there only being one true God. Judaism holds faith in a single deity, the same deity as Christianity, the major difference being that those of the Jewish faith do not believe that Jesus was the son of God.
Hinduism recognises a single deity and views other Gods as aspects of this single deity, which has led to it being seen as one of the most tolerant of all the world religions. It also has, because of the wide variety of belief systems which go into its make up, the notable feature of having freedom of belief and practice meanings it’s follows are free to believe and practice as they see fit. In Baha’i there is a belief in a single God who has sent many prophets throughout human history, including Adam, Krishna, Buddha, Jesus, Mohammed, The Bab and Baha’u’llah. This provides a cross over between Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.
Shinto believes in Kami (deities) but they bear little resemblence to monotheistic dieties. They are benign entities which protect and help their people. They are more closely related to the nature gods of pagan religions. Sikhs believe in a single, Formless God, with many names, who can be known through meditation. They believe his name is synonymous with truth and that he is the creator of everything. They also believe that he is without fear or hate and that he is immortal and, therefore beyond birth and death. Only he can be worshiped as all other Gods are false Gods. In Vodun, also known as Voodoo (though this word has been demonised by western culture), has a central God (Olorun), a lesser God (Obatala) and a pantheon of spirits (Loa) which resemble in nature the saints of Catholicism.
What all this means, naturally, is that this question cannot be answered unequivocably due to the simple reason that people believe in different things. The majority of people believe in some sort of God, they have faith their God’s existence, but there are also people who have no concept of God or believe there is no God at all.
In Taoism the idea of a personified deity is a foreign one, as is the concept of a creator God, who formed the universe. Therefore, they do not pray as such because there is no God to hear the prayers or to act upon them. They seek to answer life's problems through meditation and observation. Jainism does not believe in a God, but believe the universe exists as a series of layers: 30 layers of heaven (the upper world), the earth and the rest of the universie (the middle world) and 7 layers of hell (the nether world). They also believe the universe has no beginning and will have no ending.
Buddhism does not believe in a God, though it does not deny the existence of a God or Gods either. Buddhists believe in a rebirth of the soul until enlightenment is achieved and the soul reaches Nirvana.
At its core Buddhism is a non-theistic religion and, unlike other world religions, Buddhism is not a doctrine of revelation. The Buddha did not claim to be the bearer of a message from on high. He made it clear that what he taught he had discovered for himself through his own efforts. The Buddha himself is revered not as a deity or supernatural being but as a very special kind of human being. Kerry Trembath (former Secretary of the Buddhist Council of New South Wales)
There is debate, due to the nature of Buddhism, as to whether it is a religion or a philosophy. If you define religion as being based on one or many deities then Buddhism fails to meet this criteria and is therefor not a religion. If you define religion as Clifford Geertz, an anthropologist from Princeton, does (that being an organized approach to human spirituality which usually encompasses a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices, often with a supernatural or transcendent quality, that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, God or gods, or ultimate truth) then Buddhism does indeed fall under the umbrella of religion.
The person who has a lack of belief in a God or Gods is referred to as an Atheist. The “undecided voter” in religious terms is Agnostic. Taoists, Jainists and Buddhists fall into these two categories.
The question of whether there is a God or not is a very individual and personal question. Everyone has to answer the question for themselves based on their own “proof”. Whether there is a God or not, and whether you believe or not, should not be a factor in determining the validity of someone’s life. I find it disturbing that people will dislike or even hate someone based on their religious belief. Just like it is irrational to dislike someone for their favourite colour, it is irrational to dislike someone for their choice of religion.
The real question should be: Would the existence of a God make you act differently from how you would act if there were no God? In a perfect world, it should not matter. People should treat each other with respect and dignity regardless of what may or may not happen to them in the afterlife. The idea of Heaven, for example, should be a reward for good behaviour not a bribe to ensure it.
What is good and what is evil?
From a purely evolutionary standpoint, good is that which benefits the survival of the species. There really isn’t evil, evolutionarily. There is indifferent. There is harmful. There is no evil and this is why:
Evil implies, for me at least, intention to do ill will. Evolution does not have will. It is mankind that has will and can exercise that will. I believe that people can be evil. I believe that people can be wired so that they enjoy inflicting pain and suffering. I also believe that those people can choose to deal with it or not deal with it. It is in choosing not to deal with it that one becomes evil. There are also no inherently evil acts. There are acts which are bad, like killing someone, but it is the intention with which the act is performed that makes the act evil, not the act itself.
What is knowledge?
Knowledge is defined as information and skills acquired through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
There is a quote by Albert Einstein that goes, “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” This is very true. All too often people jump into a situation where they have the information about what they are doing but not the understanding to put that information to use, with sometimes detrimental and sometimes catastrophic results.
Knowledge allows us to make informed decisions. It gives us a greater capacity for a fulfilling life. The knowledge we amass over the course of our lifetime can bring us joy, help us to get through pain and give us tools for survival. This knowledge comes in all forms: knowledge of how to cook and look after ourselves, knowledge of how to relate to people, knowledge of how to complete tasks for monetary renumeration, and knowledge of love and other emotional responses.
Knowledge of a specific area in minute detail can benefit the whole world. Brilliant minds able to store information, process it and spit out knowledge are the backbone of progress in our society. With this knowledge, however, comes great responsibility. It befalls society to set a mandate for the use of knowledge and to enforce it’s rule. Should the knowledge be used for the benefit of the fe at the expence of the majority then we have failed as a society to protect not only ourselves but all future generations.
What is truth?
Truth is subjective. Is that statement true? It is truthful subject to you agreeing with it. It has been said that there are no absolute truths. I believe that there can be mathematical or scientific truths, eg. 1+1=2 and copper is a metal. I also believe that the truth of other things is more constructed than self-evident.
Winston Churchill once said, “History is written by the victors.” This idea can also be applied to truth, as history is supposedly the truth of past events. It has been shown, by the comparison of historic texts from differing views, that the truth is history is often not written by either side but lies somewhere in the middle.
As humans, we do not see objectively. We see how we have been taught to see. Take for example the following scenario:
A man is witnessed by three people picking up a child, who is kicking and screaming, and putting them into a car before driving off. The first witness, who knows neither the man nor the child, calls the police and reports and abduction. When the police arrive they interview the second witness, who only knows the child, being their teacher. This person has never known the child to act in that manner and confirms the theory of abduction. The third witness, who knows both the man and the child and is a friend of the child’s mother, tells the police that the man is the child’s estranged father who hasn’t been in the child’s life for months. The police then locate the man and the child at the man’s home where the child is playing happily.
What was the truth of the situation? The man, having been through a messy divorce, had not seen his child for some months. Having agreed on a custody arrangement, the man picks the child up from school but, having promised the child a trip to the park and the park being closed for refurbishment, the child throws a tantrum. The witnesses cannot be blamed for the assumed truth they thought they saw as they have been programmed by their own experiences to see this situation as sinister, rather than innocent.
I am not saying that all witnesses would have seen the above example the same way and that is my point. Having all the available facts are what make the truth visable to us, yet many of us operate with only half the facts and assume truths where perhaps there are none.
What is consciousness?
Consciousness is defined as the state of being awake and aware of one's surroundings or the awareness or perception of something by a person. It is this second half of the definition with which I am primarily concerned. Being conscious of your own self is two fold. There is how you view yourself and how you believe you are viewed by others. This goes for physical and psychological self conciousness. It can affect your entire life depending on how you perceive yourself.
Counsciousness of your surroundings is also important for survival. Being aware of how people will reaction is vital but being able to percieve how people might react is paramount. Whether we subscribe to the theory that there is a higher consciousness which can be attained is a personal decision. It makes the assumption that there can be some sort of ascension of the mind to a high plane of thinking. I tend to be of the belief that all humans are capable of any level of thinking or consciousness given the correct tools.
Do we have a "free will"?
First we must define free will. It is the power of acting without the constraint of necessity or fate, or the ability to act at one's own discretion. What this means is that the choice of action is left to the individual and is not predetermined.
There are many factors in the debate over free will. There is the idea that the past and present determine the future. Whether this principle is enough to completely override free will is in itself debatable. I believe that the past and present limit the choices we can make but still leave enough variation in choice that free will can be exerted.
The idea that all behaviors, beliefs, and desires are fixed by our genetic endowment and our biochemical makeup is one that has some scientific basis. However, in a very strict reading of this theory only nature is taken into account and not nurture which leads to the debate over nature versus nurture, or biological versus environmental factors. In a looser reading of the theory, environment can also predetermine outcomes of behavioural choices.
The other factor that plays a large part in people’s perception of the concept of free will is the existance of a God or Gods, and their possible intervention in the affairs of man. For some, God is the only one who can determine the future and therefore negates the free will of man as all actions have been predetermined by God. For others, God gave man free will and allows man to exercise this free will. For yet others still, God gave man free will but reserves the right to interfere when necessary, giving the illusion of free will so long as that will chooses the path determined as acceptable by God, or at least doesn’t interfere with God’s grand plan.
In my mind, the concept of free will is as complex as any in this universe. We are creatures of our own making, shaped by our genetic makeup, environmental factors (including cultural biases), and free thought. It is more likely that identical twins (having genetically identical bodies) growing up in the same basic environment with the same basic influences will grow up to make similar choices, exercising their free will in similar ways. They will not be identical in the choices they make, however, because their experiences of events will not be completely identical. Likewise, two people born on opposite sides of the world, with different cultural backgrounds and different experiences growing up, may lead very similar lives through the exercise of free thought.
How can we be happy?
This is a question that can only be answered by first answering the question, “what is happiness?” and that is one of the hardest (and simplest) questions to answer. It is hard because everyone has a slightly different take on what it means to be happy, yet this is also what makes it easy because it doesn’t matter what anyone else thinks of as happiness, your definition of happiness is what you measure your own happiness by.
For me, happiness comes from within and without. Loving and being loved (by my son, the rest of my family, my friends, my partner when I have one) brings me happiness. Success brings me happiness. Knowing that I tried my best, even if I failed, brings me happiness. Knowing I have made the right decision makes me happy. Helping others and making them happy makes me happy.
Whatever your definition of happiness and how you come by it (whether it be faith in a God or Gods, having all that you need, the love of family, or personal success either materially of spiritually), I hope that you have happiness or find happiness in every aspect of your life.
Why can we not live forever?
First of all, I’m not sure I’d like to live forever. What would you do? I mean, eventually you’re going to run out of things to do and people see and places to go. University of Cambridge philosopher Simon Blackburn, in his essay "Religion and Respect," writes, ". . . things do not gain meaning by going on for a very long time, or even forever. Indeed, they lose it. A piece of music, a conversation, even a glance of adoration or a moment of unity have their alloted time. Too much and they become boring. An infinity and they would be intolerable." I’m quite glad we don’t live forever. I know it’s sad when people die, and some people are taken way too soon, but without death there is no birth … no new life, no new thought, no innovation, no progress.
Second of all, it depends on your definition of living forever? Is immortality just physically being present until the end of time or is it something more intangible? English author, Albert Pine once said “What we do for ourselves dies with us. What we do for others and the world remains and is immortal.” We enjoy the works of Shakespeare, Beethoven, Picasso and whole raft of other writers, musicians, artists, etc because their works have spoken to generation after generation. They have, in effect, become immortal. Likewise, we discuss thoughts and ideas expressed by Plato, Copernicus, Churchill and many other philosophers, scientists and politicians even though they have physically died. Chuck Palahniuk perhaps put it best when he said, “We all die. The goal isn’t to live forever, the goal is to create something that will.”
Thirdly, does immortality take into account the eternal soul? If you believe in Heaven and Hell (or some other such resting place for the soul in the afterlife) or in reincarnation or resurrection, then immortality is a certainty.
Scientifically, immortality is the holy grail of medical research. There are several things which impede the establishment of immortality in human beings, one of which is the Hayflick Limit (the point at which a cell can no longer divide because of DNA damage or shortened telomeres). If scientists were able to come up with a solution to the problem of shortened telomeres and the many other variants which contribute to the aging process, we might achieve something akin to true immortality – biological immortality.
There are many ideas doing the rounds of the scientific, pseudo-scientific and science-fiction communities in regards to immortality. Cryogenics (freezing organisms for later revival at a time when a cure for whatever disease they have has been found) is one such idea. Another is Cybernetics (where human body parts are replaced with electronic parts, creating so-called cyborgs) and mind-computer interfaces (where the human consciousness is uploaded to a computer). There is also nanotechnology, with nanorobotics theorist Robert Freitas expounding the proposal that nanotechnology will eventually make the human body effectively self-sustainable and capable of living indefinitely by creating nanobots to go through systems within the human body (such as the bloodstream) to find dangerous things like cancer cells and bacteria, and destroy them.
I am of the opinion that immortality cannot be truly fathomed by the human mind, and that while people may be tempted by the idea of immortality, the actual fact of living for hundreds of thousands of years would soon wear thin. Combine this with the fact that you cannot live longer than the universe (unless you believe in multi-verses and invent a way of travelling between then) then immortality is impossible.
I am quite content to live my life and for it to come to it’s natural conclusion. I am not afraid of death. I do not look forward to dying, but I am not about to seek biological immortality just to avoid it as I would achieve no more in a million years than I would in the one hundred years.
What is the meaning of life?
As far as a dictionary definition goes the meaning of life is: the condition that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, reproduction, functional activity, and continual change preceding death.
Evolution, as such, has only one purpose: to increase the likelihood of survival. Each individual species or subspecies has little purpose in the grand scheme of things, scientifically, except to exist and to continue from one generation to the next. If we think about humans specifically and look at it from a philosophical point of view, there are many theories as to the purpose or meaning of life.
Plato believed the meaning of life was in attaining the highest form of knowledge. This is the driving force behind the study of science, literature, art and religion. On the other end of the spectrum we find the Nihilists, including the French philosopher Albert Camus, who believed that the world had no extrenal values or meaning and that it was the absurdity of human nature to search for these things. Existentialists remove the meaning of life from the world as a general entity and place the burden of the creation of meaning squarely at the foot of the individual.
As an individual, we can assign any meaning we wish to life, supposing that we believe in the concept of free will, at least to some degree. If we give over the determination of our destiny to a third party, such as God, then we cannot truly know the meaning of our life as it is in the hands of a mind not our own and, therefore, unreadable.
In my personal opinion, the meaning of my life is to be the best person I can be and to create part of the next generation which is better in their lifetime than I am in mine. If I am remembered only by those who know me personally, then so be it, it is not important. The meaning of my life is not to be famous. It is not to solve world peace. It is merely to lead a peaceful existence that leave a positive place for my son (and any other children I might have) to call home. If I achieve that, and nothing else, then I have succeeded in life and my life has been meaningful.
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